The following is from a paper I wrote a few years back regarding daily rituals and beliefs of Ancient Egyptians. Much of my artwork delves into the concepts behind beliefs and myths from various cultures around the world, the similarities they share, questions why and how it relates to today. Rituals and beliefs are often made to explain the world around us and to affect it with our will. They offer a sense of stability in chaos, a comfort and sense of control. They take many different forms over distance and time, but share many basic qualities. These similarities may help to unite us and may have some clues as to what it is to be human.
Although it is difficult to get a true picture of what it was like to live in ancient Egypt, we are able to understand quite a bit about the beliefs, moral values and religious practices of the average person during that time. Excavations of towns and settlements, preserved writings and manuscripts, amulets and statues, as well as tomb walls depicting daily life are all able to explain a great deal.
One of the best preserved villages is Dier el Medina, which was a workman’s village. Many other villages have been either destroyed (such as Amarna) or built over (Memphis). Dier el Medina happened to be far enough away in the desert which was not an ideal place for most cities. Other settlements closer to the nile would be easily eroded, re-used or built over. Most houses were made of mud brick and perishable. Dier el Medina happened to be closer to a quarry then the nile, and so much of it was built of stone. From this we are able to piece together quite a bit about the daily life from the remains. Several temples were discovered at Deir el-Medina including Hathor chapel of Seti I andAmun temple of Ramses II, and another Ptolemaic Hathor temple. (Toivari-Viitala 2011; 8-9) Many limestone pieces of ostrich have been found there, which detail all sorts of things from letters and legal documents to moral teachings and religious documents. Some of these include healing incantations to restore health, and a copy of the ‘Teachings of Amenemhat’. (Deir el-Medina ostraca in the Petrie Museum. 2002).
The homes such as those at Deir el-Medina help to reconstruct the daily religious rituals of the Egyptians through the presence of shrines, ancestor busts, amulets and other household items with religious significance. The home was often used for religious purposes, which can be inferred from the remains found in most homes. Most families had alters in their homes and ancestor shrines in the first two rooms. There are about 150 examples of what is known as ancestor busts. They usually were about a quarter meter high with a head set on a base and sometimes decorated with a collar or a lotus. Many are made from limestone with traces of paint, although other materials have been found. Some came from the niches found in walls of the first or second rooms at Deir el-Medina. Others were found in tombs, chapels, or around the temple. Although the meaning of the busts is not 100% certain, their purpose is assumed within the context and historical tradition which has been documented since the old kingdom. The living would present offerings to their relatives who had passed and the busts would embody their spirits. Other artifacts which had been discovered include Letters to the Dead which also reaffirm the idea that the dead could impact the life of the living. (Exell 2008; 1-3)
Houses would often have a shrine in the first room with an image of a deity within a niche and in front of it a place for offerings. One common household diety was Bes, a dwarf who is thought to repel evil spirits and protect women in childbirth. He was seen on many house walls in Dier el-Medina. Bes is also seen on headrests and other household items. The image of Bes was also seen on reliefs in the form of tattoos on the thighs of dancers and musicians (Aifft 2010).
Rituals and spells were often used to protect the home as well as amulets for protection, such as amulets of Taweret or Sekhmet to ward of evil spirits. Texts were written such as ‘The Instructions of Ani” to ward off ghosts. If someone wanted to commune with the dead they could write a letter in ink on offering bowls and leave it at the tomb. In the ‘Tale of Petese’, known from Demotic papyri from 1st century AD, Petese meets a ghost in a tomb at Heliopolis while looking for a cure for his illness. Many other examples of the supernatural have been found in texts. Sometimes special priests would be called in known as Lector Priests, who were common characters in literature at the time. They would do things such as turn wax animals into real animals or part the seas. They had access to many spells and would try to intimidate the gods in order to achieve their aims (Shaw 2014; 159-164).
The temple complex was the religious center of the ancient Egyptians. Most common Egyptians were not allowed to enter into the temple complex, but the king put up statues outside the temples to act as intermediaries for the people where they could leave offerings or convey messages (Shaw 2014; 143). The people also had access to chapels ‘of the hearing ear’ located on the back wall of the temples. Inside were statues of the king and gods which could be addressed. Messages to the gods were often written on linen and attached to sticks so they could be put into the walls or doors so the god inside could read them. (Shaw 2014; 144).
Outside of the temple complex many small shrines existed which were accessible to anyone. Usually they were dedicated to gods which dealt with aspects of daily life such as Hathor who was associated with love and marriage. People would often leave fertility figures for her. Different deities could be worshipped for specific purposes such as Bastet for love problems. Egyptians would give offerings to whichever god they chose to worship in exchange for their specific need or desire, such as protection, love, or healing. Some people dedicated votive stelae to certain gods, which had images of prayer and offering texts. Examples of offerings found include food, drink, small statues, linen, jewelry, vessels, or prayers.(Shaw 2014; 145).
Priests could also act as intermediaries for the common Egyptians and relay the prayers and offerings to the gods. Priests could also act as oracles and give advice to the people as the gods spoke through them. Processions where statues of the gods covered in a shroud would be carried throughout the crowds. During processions a sacred barque with an image of the deity would move a certain way deciding yes or no. In these processions everyday people were allowed to participate in the rituals and prayers, and there are examples of people arguing their case multiple times before the gods. The gods could also be contacted in dreams. Later on in Egyptian history people were allowed to sleep in a special place within the temple where the gods would come to them as they slept. One example of this was found in Saqqara on ‘The Peak’ where people would pray to Imhotep. (Shaw 2014; 147-148).
Tomb biographies, court proceedings, and wisdom texts all provide examples of Egyptian morality. In the Egyptian book of the Dead the deceased must recite ills he has not committed before the gods in order to enter the afterlife. This list helps to demonstrate what the Egyptians believed was proper behavior during life and what was not worthy of eternity.
the Maxims of Ptahhotep provide a fine window into the moral beliefs of ancient Egyptians. It is an example of written evidence which acts as a sort of moral guide. It is said to be written by the visier to his son in an attempt to teach him morality. It often describes how best to act usually remaining quiet, listening and being non-aggressive. Sections describe how to behave in different social contexts as in when dealing with those in a superior position or a servant with his master. It also describes positions of leadership and the importance of remaining humble and not boastful but dutiful and responsible, and outlines the importance of being fair and impartial. Many of the maxims suggest a peaceful, non-aggressive, respectful way of being. There is an emphasis on not insulting or talking down to anyone great or small, having integrity, and remaining humble. (Tobin 2003; 129-148)
All of the evidence found helps to paint a fairly clear picture of the religious beliefs, practices, and moral values held by many Egyptians in the time of antiquity. Well preserved sites such as Deir el-Medina, temple complexes, and written records of myths, stories, spells, and incantations along with statues, amulets, and remains of offerings all help to provide evidence of a rich religious and moral culture.
Shaw, G.J., 2014 The Egyptian Myths, A Guide to the Ancient Gods and Legends . Thames and Hudson, pp. 141–66.
Aifft, Amgueddfa Hynafiaethau Yr., 2010 Egypt Centre Canofan Eifftaidd. ‘Bes’. Museum of Egyptian Antiquities. http://www.egypt.swan.ac.uk/index.php/archived-event/48-bes
Exell, Karen. (2008). Ancestor Bust. UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, 1(1). UCLA: Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures. nelc_uee_7914. Retrieved from: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/59k7832w
Toivari-Viitala, Jaana. (2011). Deir el-Medina (Development). UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, 1(1). UCLA: Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures. nelc_uee_7982. Retrieved from: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/6kt9m29r
Deir el-Medina ostraca in the Petrie Museum. 2002. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt//deirelmedine/ostracaindex.html
‘The Maxims of Ptahhotep’ translated by Vincent A. Tobin in Simpson, W.K. (2003) The Literature of Ancient Egypt: an anthology of stories, instructions, stelae, autobiographies, and poetry, Yale University Press, pp. 129-148,
